Módulo 3

SUPERPOTÊNCIAS DAS FLORESTAS AZUIS: BENEFÍCIOS PARA OS ECOSSISTEMAS

Descarregar o PDF do módulo

As florestas azuis, como os mangais, os sapais, as ervas marinhas e as algas, estão repletas de vida e são alguns dos habitats mais diversos da Terra. O valor que proporcionam à vida acima e abaixo da água é imenso. As suas capacidades naturais para proporcionar uma vasta gama de benefícios são consideradas os seus superpoderes. As florestas azuis utilizam estes superpoderes para prevenir as alterações climáticas e proteger as comunidades costeiras dos seus impactos nocivos, como a subida do mar, as inundações e os ventos ciclónicos. Neste módulo, vamos aprender sobre a importância destes ecossistemas no apoio à pesca, no sequestro de carbono e nas suas aplicações para uso humano. Apesar do seu papel e dimensões primordiais, infelizmente, os seres humanos ignoram continuamente os benefícios destes ecossistemas incríveis e estão a destruí-los a um ritmo alarmante, embora as tendências recentes na conservação e recuperação de ecossistemas sejam promissoras para a melhoria das florestas azuis.

O bem-estar humano e a qualidade de vida dependem, em grande medida, do capital natural, definido como o conjunto de recursos naturais do mundo, que inclui a geologia, os solos, o ar, a água e todos os organismos vivos. Alguns activos do capital natural fornecem às pessoas bens e serviços gratuitos, designados por serviços ecossistémicos ou benefícios ecossistémicos. Todos eles estão na base da nossa economia e sociedade, tornando assim possível a vida humana.

Os benefícios dos ecossistemas são os benefícios directos e indirectos de um ecossistema saudável que contribuem para o bem-estar humano. O vasto número de serviços ecosistémicos pode ser classificado em serviços de aprovisionamento, de regulação, de apoio e culturais. O conceito de serviço ecosistémico é muito antropocêntrico, ou centrado no ser humano, o que contrasta com o conceito eco/biocêntrico em que os seres humanos são apenas uma das muitas espécies que dependem dos habitats. Existem vários quadros utilizados para avaliar os tipos de benefícios ecosistémicos existentes. Os três mais comuns são a Avaliação Ecosistémica do Milénio (MA), um esforço patrocinado pela ONU para analisar o impacto das acções humanas nos ecosistemas e no bem estar humano; a Economia dos Serviços Ecosistémicos e da Biodiversidade (TEEB); e a Classificação Internacional Comum dos Serviços Ecosistémicos (CICES). Para os objectivos deste módulo, vamos concentrar-nos no quadro TEEB dos serviços e benefícios ecosistémicos. Dentro dos quadros TEEB e MA, os “outputs” dos benefícios ecosistémicos enquadram-se nas seguintes categorias:

Os serviços de apoio mantêm as funções fundamentais do ecossistema. Estes processos são considerados a base de todos os outros serviços ecossistémicos através do ciclo de nutrientes, da formação do solo, do fornecimento de habitat e da produção primária.

Os serviços de regulação procuram estabelecer o equilíbrio num ecossistema através da regulação das perturbações. Os serviços de regulação são os ciclos naturais mais básicos de que a natureza necessita para funcionar, incluindo o ciclo da água, o ciclo do carbono, a fotossíntese, a regulação do clima e o ciclo de nutrientes entre os organismos e o solo.

Os serviços de aprovisionamento representam os benefícios mais directos e tangíveis para os seres humanos. Estes serviços incluem o fornecimento de alimentos, matérias-primas, tais como materiais de construção, energia e combustível, e recursos medicinais e ornamentais (ou seja, moda, artesanato e decoração).

Os serviços culturais são os benefícios socioculturais e não materiais que os ecossistemas proporcionam e que estão frequentemente envolvidos na formação da identidade. Estes benefícios abrangem um espetro de serviços, incluindo a estética, o recreio e o turismo, a educação e o valor histórico ou espiritual. Estes podem assumir a forma de património e identidade, um sentido de lugar ou pertença, conhecimentos tradicionais, bem como oportunidades de turismo e recreio. Os serviços culturais raramente são incluídos nas contas nacionais, regionais ou mundiais dos ecossistemas, uma vez que a sua quantificação é mais complexa do que a de outros serviços.

Uma forma comum de pensar como as estruturas biofísicas dos ecossistemas podem, em última análise, produzir benefícios de valor para os seres humanos no nosso sistema socioeconómico é através do Modelo de Cascata de Serviços Ecossistémicos.1 Todos os ecossistemas de florestas azuis têm capacidades biofísicas que os tornam úteis para as pessoas (ou seja, a altura da sua copa, biomassa abaixo do solo), o que é considerado a sua função ecossistémica. Os resultados destas funções ecossistémicas são aquilo a que chamamos serviços ecossistémicos, que, por definição, contribuem para o bem-estar humano (ou seja, saúde, segurança, aumento da felicidade) e, em última análise, produzem valor e rendimento (ou seja, produtos colhíveis, meios de subsistência), bem como prazeres não monetários.

Para ir mais fundo

 

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

Liste dois exemplos que cada categoria de serviço ecosistémico fornece (apoio, regulação, abastecimento e cultural).

Embora as florestas azuis proporcionem numerosos e importantes benefícios para os ecossistemas, vamos aprofundar quatro superpoderes fundamentais: sequestro de carbono, apoio à biodiversidade e às pescas, proteção costeira e purificação da água.

 

Embora as florestas terrestres recebam normalmente a maior parte da atenção no que respeita ao armazenamento de carbono, não são os únicos ecossistemas com uma capacidade natural para combater as alterações climáticas. Libra por libra, as florestas azuis podem ser dez vezes mais eficazes no sequestro de dióxido de carbono por área e por ano do que as florestas boreais, temperadas ou tropicais.2, 3 Isto deve-se ao facto de as florestas terrestres armazenarem a maior parte do seu carbono na sua biomassa (ramos, raízes e folhas), enquanto os ecossistemas de carbono azul armazenam a maior parte do seu carbono nos seus solos.

Há um reconhecimento global crescente do potencial dos mangais, das ervas marinhas e dos sapais como soluções baseadas na natureza na luta contra as alterações climáticas, uma vez que estes habitats, por si só, podem armazenar cerca de 10% de todo o carbono orgânico sequestrado no oceano anualmente4 dentro da sua biomassa e solos. Os ecossistemas de carbono azul ajudam a combater as alterações climáticas, retirando carbono da atmosfera.  No entanto, o sequestro e armazenamento de carbono não são os únicos benefícios climáticos conferidos pela proteção e recuperação das zonas húmidas costeiras, nem a única motivação para muitos países que procuram aproveitar o potencial destes habitats na luta contra as alterações climáticas.

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Que quantidade de carbono pode um ecossistema marinho pouco profundo sequestrar em comparação com a vegetação terrestre?

As florestas azuis constituem habitats essenciais para todos os tipos de vida selvagem marinha e costeira.  Por exemplo, as árvores dos mangais são também o habitat de ostras, cracas, esponjas e anémonas que se agarram às raízes submersas.5 Enquanto os pelicanos constroem os seus ninhos no topo das árvores dos mangais, os caranguejos escavam-se no seu solo lamacento e profundo. Muitas criaturas pequenas podem também ser encontradas escondidas entre os leitos de ervas marinhas e os sapais espessos. Os ecossistemas de carbono azul são uma fonte de alimento crucial para os animais acima e abaixo do mar e desempenham um papel fundamental em várias teias alimentares.

A biodiversidade ocupa diferentes nichos ao longo das três dimensões das paisagens e dos fundos marinhos dos habitats da floresta azul. Por exemplo, um dugongo adulto, ou uma vaca marinha, pode comer até 40 kg de ervas marinhas diariamente.6 Aves como as garças e os gansos são visitantes frequentes dos sapais, pois vêm procurar insectos, caranguejos e peixes. Guaxinins, martas e lebres também podem ser vistos a visitar as zonas húmidas para comer qualquer coisa. À medida que as ervas marinhas e as algas se decompõem, a matéria orgânica fornece nutrientes a organismos como as minhocas, os pepinos-do-mar e vários organismos que se alimentam por filtração.

As florestas azuis saudáveis desempenham um papel fundamental na manutenção das unidades populacionais de peixes. A pesca comercial que alimenta o mundo também depende da produtividade destes ecossistemas costeiros. A maioria dos peixes que comemos passa os seus primeiros dias a nadar entre raízes de mangais e rebentos de ervas marinhas. Cerca de 95%7 das espécies de peixes comerciais dependem de habitats costeiros em algum momento da sua vida. Se estes ecossistemas forem destruídos, os peixes não terão um local seguro para criar as suas crias e as suas populações diminuirão.

Para ir mais fundo…

Ver mais sobre os benefícios dos ecossistemas e as pescas8

 

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Dê um exemplo de uma espécie que depende das ervas marinhas como principal fonte de alimento.

À medida que as alterações climáticas fazem com que as tempestades tropicais se tornem mais fortes e o nível do mar suba, é mais provável que ocorram inundações e destruição costeiras. A vegetação que margeia as linhas costeiras actua como barreiras naturais, defendendo as comunidades contra estes impactos nocivos. As raízes dos mangais mantêm-se firmes contra as ondas e as vagas de tempestade quando a água do mar é empurrada para terra durante uma tempestade tropical significativa. Uma extensão de 100 metros de mangais pode reduzir a altura das ondas em até 66%.9 Estima-se que os mangais protejam anualmente 15 milhões de pessoas das inundações e minimizem os danos materiais em mais de 65 mil milhões de dólares.10 Estes números só irão aumentar com o agravamento das condições climáticas. O amortecimento das ondas e, por conseguinte, a proteção costeira foram também atribuídos a outros habitats da floresta azul. As plantas dos sapais são muito eficazes na redução da força das ondas mais pequenas. Os seus solos de turfa também ajudam a evitar inundações, absorvendo a água como uma esponja gigante. As raízes dos mangais, as ervas marinhas e as plantas dos sapais também ajudam a reter os sedimentos e a estabilizar as linhas costeiras, evitando assim a erosão das praias. Ao reterem os sedimentos e filtrarem os poluentes antes de chegarem ao oceano, os ecossistemas de carbono azul protegem outros habitats, como os recifes de coral e a vida subaquática.

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Aproximadamente quantas pessoas são protegidas anualmente das inundações e tempestades pelos mangais?

A estrutura física das ervas marinhas abranda o fluxo de água à medida que esta se desloca através do leito de ervas marinhas. As partículas em suspensão na coluna de água podem então cair e depositar-se no fundo do leito de ervas marinhas. Este aprisionamento de sedimentos pode melhorar a clareza da água através da sedimentação de partículas que tornam a água mais turva. Os níveis de contaminação, incluindo nutrientes, microplásticos e outros poluentes provenientes de águas residuais, podem ser reduzidos em habitats como os mangais, os prados de ervas marinhas e os sapais11 Os habitats de carbono azul ou as plantas tolerantes ao sal podem assimilar os contaminantes das águas residuais (principalmente através da absorção pelas raízes) e transportar oxigénio para as proximidades, permitindo que os microrganismos absorvam os poluentes. O oxigénio, um subproduto da fotossíntese, também permite a purificação e a redução da patogenicidade numa floresta azul. Embora o sequestro de carbono das algas tenha recebido a maior parte da atenção, as algas podem parecer melhores na mitigação de quantidades excessivas de azoto. A poluição por azoto é causada nas zonas costeiras por esgotos urbanos, escoamento de águas domésticas ou eliminação de resíduos da pesca. Pode conduzir a potenciais ameaças em ambientes marinhos, incluindo a proliferação de algas tóxicas, o aumento da atividade bacteriana e a diminuição dos níveis de oxigénio. As algas cultivadas em águas poluídas podem ser um instrumento promissor para a limpeza dessas zonas.12 As algas e as algas mais largas absorvem o azoto e o fósforo como fertilizantes e contribuem para a purificação da água.

Para ir mais fundo…

Ver mais sobre a capacidade de remoção de azoto e carbono das algas cultivadas13

Ver mais sobre a importância do carbono azul na mitigação das alterações climáticas e da poluição por plásticos14

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Que efeitos podem ter os nutrientes em excesso, como o azoto, nos ambientes marinhos?

Vamos dar um mergulho mais profundo e explorar os superpoderes de cada habitat das florestas azuis.

As florestas de mangue são habitats altamente produtivos e biologicamente ricos que desempenham um papel proeminente no fornecimento de bens e serviços ecossistémicos valiosos para o bem-estar humano. As raízes densas e entrelaçadas dos mangais actuam como zonas de reprodução e viveiros abrigados, protegendo as espécies de peixes e camarões dos grandes predadores. Os mangais são alguns dos ecossistemas mais ricos em carbono do planeta, armazenando em média 1 000 toneladas de carbono por hectare na sua biomassa e nos solos subjacentes15 As florestas de mangue ocupam 2% da costa mundial e são responsáveis por cerca de 30% do enterramento de carbono nas fronteiras continentais tropicais e subtropicais.16 Para além dos seus benefícios de armazenamento de carbono e do seu papel na redução dos riscos e impactos das alterações climáticas, estes ecossistemas apoiam pescas saudáveis, melhoram a qualidade da água e proporcionam proteção costeira contra inundações e tempestades. Os mangais podem valer pelo menos 1,6 mil milhões de dólares por ano em serviços ecossistémicos, no valor de 33 000-57 000 dólares por hectare e por ano17 Os serviços de aprovisionamento das florestas de mangais incluem também madeira, peixe, materiais para colmo, lenha, caranguejos, mel e cera. Considerando que se estima que 100 milhões de pessoas vivam num raio de 10 km de áreas significativas de mangais, o fornecimento de pescado é vital para a subsistência, os meios de subsistência e as práticas comerciais das comunidades costeiras em todo o mundo.18, 19

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Quanto carbono pode ser armazenado nas florestas de mangue por hectare?
  2. Qual é a percentagem da linha costeira que os mangais cobrem a nível mundial?
  3. Qual é a quantidade de carbono que os mangais podem sequestrar nas zonas tropicais?

Estima-se que mais de mil milhões de pessoas estejam a menos de 100 km de um prado de ervas marinhas em todo o mundo. As ervas marinhas são consideradas um dos ecossistemas marinhos costeiros mais valiosos e vitais. Embora cubram apenas 0,1% do fundo oceânico, as ervas marinhas constituem habitats de viveiro valiosos para um quinto das maiores pescarias do mundo e armazenam até 18% do carbono oceânico mundial.20 De facto, a função média de viveiro de pesca das ervas marinhas está estimada em 618 505 dólares por hectare e por ano.21 As ervas marinhas também protegem as linhas costeiras das tempestades, da subida do nível do mar e das inundações, que agravam a erosão costeira. Além disso, são consideradas biofiltros naturais para as águas costeiras, uma vez que purificam a água de nutrientes, contaminantes e outras partículas através das suas folhas e raízes, tais como nitratos, fosfatos e amónio. Os prados de ervas marinhas, como as espécies Halodule e Halophila, podem também ser fontes de alimento para os dugongos, manatins, tartarugas marinhas e cavalos-marinhos, carismáticos e ameaçados de extinção.

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Documentar três espécies ameaçadas ou carismáticas fora das pradarias de ervas marinhas.

Os mangais estão por vezes interligados com pradarias de ervas marinhas (e recifes de coral), o que resulta em ligações funcionais.22 A biodiversidade da flora e da fauna nas pradarias de ervas marinhas e nos mangais florestados pode incluir – dependendo do habitat – uma variedade de mamíferos, répteis, anfíbios, insectos, aves, plantas, macroalgas e fungos. A isto junta-se a diversidade adicional de espécies de vertebrados e invertebrados, alguns dos quais são animais raros e ameaçados de extinção. Os peixes, camarões e caranguejos juvenis também beneficiam do ambiente físico calmo, com baixas velocidades de corrente e ação reduzida das ondas nos mangais e prados de ervas marinhas. Têm também acesso à oferta de alimentos e podem crescer até atingirem um tamanho que lhes permita regressar aos recifes de coral, aos locais ao largo e aos rios a montante.

Os sapais são zonas húmidas de maré compostas por gramíneas, ervas e arbustos tolerantes ao sal que florescem entre a terra e a água salgada aberta. Os sapais protegem as linhas costeiras da erosão, amortecendo a ação das ondas e retendo os sedimentos. Reduzem as inundações, abrandando e absorvendo a água da chuva, protegendo a qualidade da água através da filtragem do escoamento e metabolizando o excesso de nutrientes. Os pântanos podem reduzir a erosão, estabilizar as linhas costeiras, proteger contra as tempestades e suportar espécies cruciais para a pesca recreativa e comercial, a caça, a observação de aves e outras actividades. Os sapais são um tipo de habitat estuarino que actua como um enorme filtro, removendo poluentes como pesticidas e metais pesados da água que os atravessa. A capacidade destas zonas húmidas costeiras para armazenar quantidades significativas de carbono, principalmente no solo, impulsionou a ação climática que orienta os países para a implementação de estratégias climáticas globais de sequestro de carbono, conhecidas como Contribuições Nacionalmente Determinadas (NDC). Os sapais armazenam entre 65 e 95% do seu carbono nos seus solos subterrâneos.23, 24 Os solos costeiros húmidos têm níveis de oxigénio muito mais baixos do que os do solo da floresta, o que faz com que a matéria vegetal morta demore mais tempo a decompor-se. Consequentemente, o carbono armazenado nos solos costeiros pode permanecer aí retido durante milhares de anos. Relativamente aos benefícios culturais, os sapais proporcionam um terreno para a pesca recreativa, o turismo de natureza, a educação, as oportunidades de investigação e, por vezes, a caça.25

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Porque é que as florestas azuis têm a capacidade de sequestrar mais carbono em comparação com as florestas verdes?

As florestas de kelp ocorrem em águas temperadas e podem ocorrer esporadicamente em águas profundas mais quentes. O papel das florestas de kelp como sumidouro de carbono é uma área de investigação ativa. No entanto, as kelps contribuem de forma essencial para o ciclo do carbono, convertendo o carbono inorgânico em biomassa orgânica, que armazena carbono a curto prazo. A biomassa de algas que não é pastoreada pode ser enterrada no fundo do mar ou transportada para profundidades superiores a 1000 metros para armazenamento de carbono a longo prazo.26 Para além do carbono, as florestas de algas suportam a biodiversidade e os habitats de muitas espécies nas suas extensas copas verticais. Na Noruega, por exemplo, foi demonstrado que um único indivíduo de alga L. hyperborea suporta cerca de 80 000 organismos de mais de 70 espécies.27 As florestas de algas marinhas saudáveis podem também desempenhar um papel essencial na atenuação dos impactos das tempestades em zonas costeiras vulneráveis, amortecendo a intensidade das ondas geradas antes de atingirem terra.

As algas geram valor de uso direto através da colheita de algas, da pesca comercial e recreativa e das actividades turísticas que apoiam. O cultivo de algas é uma indústria em rápido crescimento para produtos comestíveis para alimentação humana e animal. O alginato é também extraído das algas castanhas e é utilizado como estabilizador de produtos alimentares, como gelados e outros produtos lácteos, e também como espessante e emulsionante para saladas, pudins, compotas, sumo de tomate e produtos enlatados.

Para ir mais fundo…

Ver mais sobre a avaliação dos benefícios dos serviços ecossistémicos da restauração da floresta de algas28

Teste os seus conhecimentos:

  1. Verdadeiro ou falso: as algas sequestram carbono no sedimento onde crescem.

Está pronto para colocar o seu conhecimento em ação e mergulhar profundamente no lado prático da investigação do carbono azul? Prepare-se para explorar as incríveis maravilhas do carbono azul enquanto mergulhamos no Módulo 4: Trabalho de campo do carbono azul!

Resources

The Blue Carbon Protocol outlines how to perform a carbon assessment, from sampling in the field to the lab analysis. The Blue Carbon Protocol outlines how to perform a carbon assessment from sampling[...]
Type: File
Blue Carbon Explained Videos
Blue Carbon Explained Videos
Type: Collection
Blue Carbon sampling
Blue Carbon sampling

Blue forests made of marine plants and seaweeds protect our coasts, support biodiversity and capture carbon. Unfortunately, we already lost half of these important and fragile ecosystems worldwide.[...]

Type: Video
Module 5: What Can We Do to Conserve and Restore Blue Forests? (PDF)
Module 5: What Can We Do to Conserve and Restore Blue Forests? (PDF)
Unfortunately, over the last 20–50 years, 50% of salt marshes, 35% of mangroves, and 29% of seagrasses have been lost. Kelp forests are also facing a global decline in abundance of 1.8% per year. Wh[...]
Type: File
Module 4: Blue Carbon Fieldwork (PDF)
Module 4: Blue Carbon Fieldwork (PDF)
Citizens can certainly play a role in contributing to blue carbon accounting, conducting field assessments of blue carbon following a scientific standardized protocol and after being trained by profes[...]
Type: File
Module 3: Blue Forests Superpowers (PDF)
Module 3: Blue Forests Superpowers (PDF)
Blue forests, such as mangroves, saltmarshes, seagrass, and kelp, are teeming with life and are some of the most diverse habitats on Earth. The value they provide for life above and below water is imm[...]
Type: File
Module 2: What are Blue Forests? (PDF)
Module 2: What are Blue Forests? (PDF)
Blue forests refer to vegetated coastal and marine habitats, namely mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, kelp forests, and saltmarshes. Given their key roles and efficiency in sequestering greenhouse g[...]
Type: File
Module 1: Ocean Literacy and Climate Change (PDF)
Module 1: Ocean Literacy and Climate Change (PDF)
For this module, we will highlight the cognitive learning objectives that help us better understand basic marine ecology, ecosystems, the connection of humanity to the sea and the life it holds, inclu[...]
Type: File
Importance of Blue Carbon in Mitigating Climate Change and Plastic/Microplastic Pollution and Promoting Circular Economy
Importance of Blue Carbon in Mitigating Climate Change and Plastic/Microplastic Pollution and Promoting Circular Economy
Blue carbon has made significant contributions to climate change adaptation and mitigation while assisting in achieving co-benefits such as aquaculture development and coastal restoration, winning int[...]
Type: External-link
Blue Carbon Conservation in West Africa: A first assessment of feasibility
Blue Carbon Conservation in West Africa: A first assessment of feasibility
The loss of blue carbon ecosystems results in significant levels of carbon emissions and decreased supply of other ecosystem services. West Africa contains approximately 14% of the world’s mangrove [...]
Type: Video
Ocean Acidification
Ocean Acidification
The ocean absorbs about 30% of the carbon dioxide (CO2) that is released in the atmosphere. As levels of atmospheric CO2 increase from human activity such as burning fossil fuels (e.g., car emissions)[...]
Type: External-link
The Future of Blue Carbon Science
The Future of Blue Carbon Science
The term Blue Carbon (BC) was first coined a decade ago to describe the disproportionately large contribution of coastal vegetated ecosystems to global carbon sequestration. The role of BC in climate [...]
Type: External-link
Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests
Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests
Kelp forests are extensive underwater habitats that range along 25% of the world’s coastlines, providing valuable resources, habitat, and services for coastal communities. They grow best in cold, nu[...]
Type: External-link
Accelerating Loss of Seagrasses Across the Globe Threatens Coastal Ecosystems
Accelerating Loss of Seagrasses Across the Globe Threatens Coastal Ecosystems
Coastal ecosystems and the services they provide are adversely affected by a wide variety of human activities. In particular, seagrass meadows are negatively affected by impacts accruing from the bill[...]
Type: External-link
Seagrass Restoration Enhances “Blue Carbon” Sequestration in Coastal Waters
Seagrass Restoration Enhances “Blue Carbon” Sequestration in Coastal Waters
Seagrass meadows are highly productive habitats that provide important ecosystem services in the coastal zone, including carbon and nutrient sequestration. Organic carbon in seagrass sediment, known a[...]
Type: External-link
Seagrass Community Metabolism: Assessing the carbon sink capacity of seagrass meadows
Seagrass Community Metabolism: Assessing the carbon sink capacity of seagrass meadows
The metabolic rates of seagrass communities were synthesized on the basis of a data set on seagrass community metabolism containing 403 individual estimates derived from a total of 155 different sites[...]
Type: External-link
Extinction Risk Assessment of the World’s Seagrass Species
Extinction Risk Assessment of the World’s Seagrass Species
Seagrasses, a functional group of marine flowering plants rooted in the world’s coastal oceans, support marine food webs and provide essential habitat for many coastal species, playing a critical ro[...]
Type: External-link
Global Mangrove Deforestation and Its Interacting Social-Ecological Drivers: A Systematic Review and Synthesis
Global Mangrove Deforestation and Its Interacting Social-Ecological Drivers: A Systematic Review and Synthesis
Globally, mangrove forests are substantially declining, and a globally synthesized database containing the drivers of deforestation and drivers’ interactions is scarce. Here, we synthesized the key [...]
Type: External-link
Future Carbon Emissions from Global Mangrove Forest Loss
Future Carbon Emissions from Global Mangrove Forest Loss
Mangroves have among the highest carbon densities of any tropical forest. These ‘blue carbon’ ecosystems can store large amounts of carbon for long periods, and their protection reduces greenhouse[...]
Type: External-link
Seasonal and Temporal CO2 Dynamics in Three Tropical Mangrove Creeks: A revision of global mangrove CO2 emissions
Seasonal and Temporal CO2 Dynamics in Three Tropical Mangrove Creeks: A revision of global mangrove CO2 emissions
Continuous high-resolution surface water pCO2 and δ13C-CO2 and 222Rn (dry season only) were measured over two tidal cycles in the wet and dry season in three tropical tidal mangrove creeks on the nor[...]
Type: External-link
Creation of a High Spatio-temporal Resolution Global Database of Continuous Mangrove Forest Cover for the 21st Century
Creation of a High Spatio-temporal Resolution Global Database of Continuous Mangrove Forest Cover for the 21st Century
Global mangrove deforestation continues but at a much reduced rate of between 0.16% and 0.39% per year. Southeast Asia is a region of concern with mangrove deforestation rates between 3.58% and 8.08%,[...]
Type: External-link
Global Mangrove Extent Change 1996–2020: Global Mangrove Watch Version 3.0
Global Mangrove Extent Change 1996–2020: Global Mangrove Watch Version 3.0
Mangroves are a globally important ecosystem that provides a wide range of ecosystem system services, such as carbon capture and storage, coastal protection and fisheries enhancement. Mangroves have s[...]
Type: External-link
Species Distribution and Habitat Exploitation of Fauna Associated with Kelp (Laminaria Hyperborea) Along the Norwegian Coast
Species Distribution and Habitat Exploitation of Fauna Associated with Kelp (Laminaria Hyperborea) Along the Norwegian Coast
Fauna associated with the common kelp along the Norwegian coast, Laminaria hyperborea, was sampled at four sites covering 1000 km of coastline. Exploitation of the kelp habitat by the fauna, and the[...]
Type: External-link
The Protective Role of Coastal Marshes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
The Protective Role of Coastal Marshes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Saltmarshes lie between many human communities and the coast and have been presumed to protect these communities from coastal hazards by providing important ecosystem services. However, previous chara[...]
Type: External-link
Carbon Accumulation and Storage Across Contrasting Saltmarshes of Scotland
Carbon Accumulation and Storage Across Contrasting Saltmarshes of Scotland
Saltmarshes are acknowledged to be “carbon hotspots” due to their capacity to trap and store large quantities of carbon (C) within their soils and potentially have the ability to regulate climate [...]
Type: External-link
Marine Ecosystem Services
Marine Ecosystem Services
Marine ecosystems represent some of the most heavily exploited ecosystems throughout the world. For example, coastal zones make up just 4% of the earth’s total land area and 11% of the world’s oce[...]
Type: External-link
A Review of Seagrass Economic Valuations: Gaps and progress in valuation approaches
A Review of Seagrass Economic Valuations: Gaps and progress in valuation approaches
Multiple studies have documented the ecologically important role that seagrasses play in estuarine and marine ecosystems. Unfortunately, economic valuations of these systems have not been as widesprea[...]
Type: External-link
Why Protecting & Restoring Blue Carbon Ecosystems Matters
Why Protecting & Restoring Blue Carbon Ecosystems Matters
Mangroves and seagrass meadows are coastal ecosystems that cover a small portion of the total ocean area but collectively are widely distributed on every continent except Antarctica. Mangroves are fou[...]
Type: External-link
Contribution of Mangroves to Coastal Carbon Cycling in Low Latitude Seas
Contribution of Mangroves to Coastal Carbon Cycling in Low Latitude Seas
The contribution of mangrove carbon to the coastal ocean in low latitudes was evaluated. Mangrove forests occupy only 2% of the world’s coastal ocean area yet they account for about 5% of net pr[...]
Type: External-link
Mangroves Among the Most Carbon-Rich Forests in the Tropics
Mangroves Among the Most Carbon-Rich Forests in the Tropics
Mangrove forests occur along ocean coastlines throughout the tropics, and support numerous ecosystem services, including fisheries production and nutrient cycling. However, the areal extent of mangrov[...]
Type: External-link
Marine Pollution Potentially Mitigated by Kelp Farms
Marine Pollution Potentially Mitigated by Kelp Farms
Emerging research from the University of Alaska Fairbanks suggests that implementing kelp farms may be an effective strategy for combatting the growing problem of marine pollution. The university stud[...]
Type: External-link
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Coastal Wetlands: A review of their occurrences, toxic effects, and biogeochemical cycling
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Coastal Wetlands: A review of their occurrences, toxic effects, and biogeochemical cycling
Coastal wetlands, such as mangroves, seagrass beds, and salt marshes, are highly threatened by increasing anthropic pressures, including chemical pollution. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have a[...]
Type: External-link
The Global Flood Protection Benefits of Mangroves
The Global Flood Protection Benefits of Mangroves
Coastal flood risks are rising rapidly. Authors provide high resolution estimates of the economic value of mangroves forests for flood risk reduction every 20 km worldwide. Authors develop a probabi[...]
Type: External-link
Mangroves for Coastal Defence
Mangroves for Coastal Defence
The role of mangroves in protecting our coasts against natural hazards such as storms, tsunamis and coastal erosion has been widely acknowledged. Even so, the level of protection provided by mangroves[...]
Type: External-link
Ecosystems as Fish Factories
Ecosystems as Fish Factories
The authors’ initial global model of mangrove fisheries was built up front a detailed review of hundreds of studies from around the world, and informed by an expert panel. In terms of natural pr[...]
Type: External-link
Long Distance Biotic Dispersal of Tropical Seagrass Seeds by Marine Mega-herbivores
Long Distance Biotic Dispersal of Tropical Seagrass Seeds by Marine Mega-herbivores
Terrestrial plants use an array of animals as vectors for dispersal, however little is known of biotic dispersal of marine angiosperms such as seagrasses. This study in the Great Barrier Reef confirms[...]
Type: External-link
Mangroves as Feeding and Breeding Grounds
Mangroves as Feeding and Breeding Grounds
Mangroves are considered as ecosystems that provide shelter, food and breeding grounds for many groups of inhabiting fauna. Much of the fauna present are organisms in different stages of their life cy[...]
Type: External-link
Seagrass Ecosystems as a Globally Significant Carbon Stock
Seagrass Ecosystems as a Globally Significant Carbon Stock
The protection of organic carbon stored in forests is considered as an important method for mitigating climate change. Like terrestrial ecosystems, coastal ecosystems store large amounts of carbon, an[...]
Type: External-link
Keys to Successful Blue Carbon Projects: Lessons learned from global case studies
Keys to Successful Blue Carbon Projects: Lessons learned from global case studies
Ecosystem services such as protection from storms and erosion, tourism benefits, and climate adaptation and mitigation have been increasingly recognized as important considerations for environmental p[...]
Type: External-link
Estimating Global “Blue Carbon” Emissions from Conversion and Degradation of Vegetated Coastal Ecosystems
Estimating Global “Blue Carbon” Emissions from Conversion and Degradation of Vegetated Coastal Ecosystems
Recent attention has focused on the high rates of annual carbon sequestration in vegetated coastal ecosystems – marshes, mangroves, and seagrasses – that may be lost with habitat destruction (R[...]
Type: External-link
The Ocean Carbon Cycle
The Ocean Carbon Cycle
The ocean holds vast quantities of carbon that it continually exchanges with the atmosphere through the air-sea interface. Because of its enormous size and relatively rapid exchange of carbon with the[...]
Type: External-link
A Drop in the Ocean: Closing the gap in ocean climate finance
A Drop in the Ocean: Closing the gap in ocean climate finance
The ocean is a fundamental economic and environmental engine providing the services that are critical for the success of every economy and the very survival of life on our planet. And yet, it is serio[...]
Type: External-link
Ocean Circulation and Climate During the Past 120,000 Years
Ocean Circulation and Climate During the Past 120,000 Years
Oceans cover more than two-thirds of our blue planet. The waters move in a global circulation system, driven by subtle density differences and transporting huge amounts of heat. Ocean circulation is t[...]
Type: External-link
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing and Associated Drivers
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing and Associated Drivers
Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing accounts for 20% of the world catch and up to 50% in some areas. This industry often uses bonded labour, destructive fishing practices and deceptive p[...]
Type: External-link
Closing Loopholes: Getting Illegal Fishing Under Control
Closing Loopholes: Getting Illegal Fishing Under Control
Decreasing numbers of fish caught in global fisheries, overcapacity of fishing fleets, and rising demand for fish heighten the negative impacts of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing an[...]
Type: External-link
Beyond Plastic Waste
Beyond Plastic Waste
With more than 8 million tons of plastic entering the ocean each year, humanity must urgently rethink the way we make and use plastics, so that they do not become waste in the first place. Cheap, ligh[...]
Type: External-link
The Keeling Curve: A daily record of global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
The Keeling Curve: A daily record of global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
The Keeling Curve is a daily record of global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration maintained by Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego. Scripps CO2 measurements at Mauna Loa have bee[...]
Type: External-link
Despite Pandemic Shutdowns, Carbon Dioxide and Methane Surged in 2020
Despite Pandemic Shutdowns, Carbon Dioxide and Methane Surged in 2020
Carbon dioxide levels are now higher than at anytime in the past 3.6 million years. Levels of the two most important anthropogenic greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide and methane, continued their unrelen[...]
Type: External-link
Adaptive Water Resources Management Under Climate Change: An Introduction
Adaptive Water Resources Management Under Climate Change: An Introduction
Readers of this journal are well aware of the challenges of managing one of our planet’s most critical natural resources: water. We professionals, the people we serve, and indeed the entire world’[...]
Type: External-link
Blue Carbon: The potential of coastal and oceanic climate action
Blue Carbon: The potential of coastal and oceanic climate action
The oceans and coasts are the Earth’s climate regulators. Covering 72 percent of the planet’s surface, they have absorbed about 40 percent of carbon emitted by human activities since 1850.1 Coasta[...]
Type: External-link
Ocean Acidification and Other Ocean Changes
Ocean Acidification and Other Ocean Changes
The world’s oceans have absorbed about 93% of the excess heat caused by greenhouse gas warming since the mid-20th century, making them warmer and altering global and regional climate feedbacks. Ocea[...]
Type: External-link
The Magnitude of Global Marine Species Diversity
The Magnitude of Global Marine Species Diversity
The question of how many marine species exist is important because it provides a metric for how much we do and do not know about life in the oceans. We have compiled the first register of the marine s[...]
Type: External-link
Why the Ocean Matters in Climate Negotiations
Why the Ocean Matters in Climate Negotiations
The ocean takes up heat and carbon, reducing the adverse effects of climate change. The ocean plays a central role in regulating our climate and weather. The ocean has taken up more than 90% of the ex[...]
Type: External-link
SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
Sustainable Development Goal 14 is to “conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development, according to the United Nations. The visualizations and data o[...]
Type: External-link
This Interactive Chart Shows Changes in the World’s Top 10 Emitters
This Interactive Chart Shows Changes in the World’s Top 10 Emitters
A lot has happened since countries met in Paris in 2015 and agreed on an accord to combat climate change. So far, 196 countries ratified or otherwise joined the Paris Climate Agreement, representing m[...]
Type: External-link
4 Charts Explain Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Countries and Sectors
4 Charts Explain Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Countries and Sectors
Globally, greenhouse gas emissions have grown by 53% from 1990 to 2019. Where are these emissions coming from, and who is responsible? WRI’s Climate Watch platform offers comprehensive emissions dat[...]
Type: External-link
Value Theory
Value Theory
Multiattribute value theory (MAVT) is a simplification of MAUT: MAVT does not seek to model the decision maker’s attitude to risk. [...]
Type: External-link
The Global Flood Protection Benefits of Mangroves
The Global Flood Protection Benefits of Mangroves
Coastal flood risks are rising rapidly. We provide high resolution estimates of the economic value of mangroves forests for flood risk reduction every 20 km worldwide. We develop a probabilistic, pr[...]
Type: External-link
Estuarine fish and shellfish species in U.S. commercial and recreational fisheries : economic value as an incentive to protect and restore estuarine habitat
Estuarine fish and shellfish species in U.S. commercial and recreational fisheries : economic value as an incentive to protect and restore estuarine habitat
Commercial and recreational fisheries generate billions of dollars each year for the U.S. economy. In 2006, 9.5 billion pounds of commercial catch was valued at $4.0 billion. This value is enhanced by[...]
Type: External-link
Seagrass ecosystems as a globally significant carbon stock
Seagrass ecosystems as a globally significant carbon stock
The protection of organic carbon stored in forests is considered as an important method for mitigating climate change. Like terrestrial ecosystems, coastal ecosystems store large amounts of carbon, an[...]
Type: External-link
Blue Carbon Quiz
Blue Carbon Quiz
Test your knowledge on blue carbon ecosystems by taking this short quiz by the High Level Panel for A Sustainable Ocean Economy. [...]
Type: External-link
Blue Carbon: The Role of Healthy Oceans in Binding Carbon
Blue Carbon: The Role of Healthy Oceans in Binding Carbon
This report is considered a key document in blue carbon science. The objective of this report is to highlight the critical role of the oceans and ocean ecosystems in maintaining our climate and in ass[...]
Type: Video
Wetland Restoration Citizen Science Program
Wetland Restoration Citizen Science Program
This short video presents the role of citizens for blue carbon assessment: the Wetland Restoration Citizen Science Program (Australia), also known as the Blue Carbon Army. [...]
Type: External-link
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and 2030 Targets
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and 2030 Targets
The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework has 23 action-oriented global targets for urgent action over the decade to 2030. The actions set out in each target need to be initiated immediately [...]
Type: External-link
Carbon Neutrality Roadmap 2050: Decarbonizing isn’t an empty word, it is a call to action
Carbon Neutrality Roadmap 2050: Decarbonizing isn’t an empty word, it is a call to action
Video featuring Portuguese climate goals for 2050. Carbon Neutrality Roadmap 2050 – “Decarbonizing isn’t an empty word, it is a call to action”. Imagine it is the year 2050… desp[...]
Type: External-link
Ecosystem Restoration Playbook: A practical guide to healing the planet
Ecosystem Restoration Playbook: A practical guide to healing the planet
Healthy ecosystems are vital to meeting those goals. Restoring them is a massive challenge. But more and more people realize that we must change our ways and move urgently to protect and rebuild natur[...]
Type: External-link
After 90% of California’s Kelp Forests Were Destroyed, SeaTrees Is Restoring Them
After 90% of California’s Kelp Forests Were Destroyed, SeaTrees Is Restoring Them
Video featuring a kelp restoration in California. “Could you imagine if 90 percent of the trees on land disappeared in 10 years?” Kevin Whilden, co-founder of Sustainable Surf and SeaTrees, lobs t[...]
Type: External-link
Researchers Rush to Protect the UK’s Saltmarshes from Sea Level Rise
Researchers Rush to Protect the UK’s Saltmarshes from Sea Level Rise
Saltmarshes sequester significant carbon in their sediment — more per hectare than tropical rainforests. They protect the land from storm surges and sea level rise, and they shelter a variety of bir[...]
Type: External-link
Project Seagrass
Project Seagrass
Project Seagrass is a global facing environmental charity devoted to the conservation of seagrass ecosystems through research, community and action. [...]
Type: External-link
The World’s Biggest Island Country Battles Coastal Erosion
The World’s Biggest Island Country Battles Coastal Erosion
We are experiencing a dangerous decline in nature: One million species are threatened with extinction, soils are turning infertile and water sources are drying up. But there are glimmers of hope: Made[...]
Type: External-link
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) are at the heart of the Paris Agreement and the achievement of its long-term goals. NDCs embody efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adap[...]
Type: External-link
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the futur[...]
Type: External-link
Understanding the Role of Conceptual Frameworks: Reading the ecosystem service cascade
Understanding the Role of Conceptual Frameworks: Reading the ecosystem service cascade
The aim of this paper is to identify the role of conceptual frameworks in operationalising and mainstreaming the idea of ecosystem services. It builds on some initial discussions from IPBES, which sug[...]
Type: External-link
Atmospheric Carbon by Birth Year Calculator
Atmospheric Carbon by Birth Year Calculator
How much carbon was in the atmosphere when you were born? [...]
Type: External-link
Sustainable development, poverty eradication and reducing inequalities. In: Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report
Sustainable development, poverty eradication and reducing inequalities. In: Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report
An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response t[...]
Type: External-link
On Defining Climate and Climate Change
On Defining Climate and Climate Change
The aim of the article is to provide a clear and thorough conceptual analysis of the main candidates for a definition of climate and climate change. [...]
Type: External-link
Connecting to the oceans
Connecting to the oceans
Improved public understanding of the ocean and the importance of sustainable ocean use, or ocean literacy, is essential for achieving global commitments to sustainable development by 2030 and beyond. [...]
Type: External-link
Tahiry Honko – a community mangrove carbon project
Tahiry Honko – a community mangrove carbon project
GRID-Arendal produced an update to this video originally created by Blue Ventures at https://vimeo.com/131638557 Learn how Madagascar's first mangrove carbon project is catalysing locally-led mangrov[...]
Type: External-link
World’s first underwater climate strike calls for ocean protection
World’s first underwater climate strike calls for ocean protection
Young Mauritian scientist and climate advocate, Shaama Sandooyea, has held the world’s first ever underwater climate strike at the heart of the Indian Ocean. The protest took place at the Saya de Ma[...]
Type: External-link
Restoration of seagrasses
Restoration of seagrasses
This video shows seagrass meadows in Portugal that have been restored, and how this was made possible through the SeagHorse project. [...]
Type: External-link
Blue carbon manual – Guidelines for estimating blue carbon stocks
Blue carbon manual – Guidelines for estimating blue carbon stocks
Conservation and restoration of blue forests ecosystems has been increasingly addressed in international and national climate change mitigation policy and finance mechanisms. However, to date, countri[...]
Type: External-link
Blue Carbon Protocol
Blue Carbon Protocol
The Blue Carbon Protocol outlines how to perform a carbon assessment, from sampling in the field to the lab analysis. The Blue Carbon Protocol outlines how to perform a carbon assessment from sampling[...]
Type: File
Blue Carbon Protocol
Blue Carbon Protocol
The Blue Carbon Protocol outlines how to perform a carbon assessment, from sampling in the field to the lab analysis. The Blue Carbon Protocol outlines how to perform a carbon assessment from sampling[...]
Type: File
NASA and Mangroves
NASA and Mangroves
Mangroves are coastal ecosystems that provide important services to coastal populations. They offer natural protection against storm surges, hurricanes and tsunamis. Mangroves also contribute to fish[...]
Type: External-link
Mangroves: A Super Solution
Mangroves: A Super Solution

Mangroves are an amazing #ClimateAction Super Solution, they are effective carbon sinks, storing four times more CO2 than rainforests. And when it comes to storm protection and sea level rise, mang[...]

Type: External-link
Blue Carbon Offsetting for Community Benefits in Kenya
Blue Carbon Offsetting for Community Benefits in Kenya
James Kairo and Salim Abdalla from Mikoko Pamoja talk about their community-based mangrove carbon offset project in Kenya. This blue solution focuses on climate change mitigation and awareness creatio[...]
Type: External-link
Recognizing Ecosystem Services from Blue Carbon Ecosystems
Recognizing Ecosystem Services from Blue Carbon Ecosystems
Infographic illustrates the recognition of ecosystem services from Blue Carbon ecosystems through ecosystem connections. Infographic from the Abu Dhabi Blue Carbon Demonstration Project: https://grid.[...]
Type: External-link
Blue Carbon Storage Capacity of Blue Forests
Blue Carbon Storage Capacity of Blue Forests
Blue Carbon ecosystems provide a highly valuable service by sequestering and storing atmospheric carbon. Infographic from the Abu Dhabi Blue Carbon Demonstration Project. https://grid.cld.bz/The-Abu-D[...]
Type: External-link
Introduction to Seagrass Meadows
Introduction to Seagrass Meadows
Introduction to Seagrass Meadows [...]
Type: External-link
Introdução às pradarias marinhas
Introdução às pradarias marinhas
Introdução às pradarias marinhas [...]
Type: External-link
How do Blue Forests Provide Coastal Protection Against Storm Surges?
How do Blue Forests Provide Coastal Protection Against Storm Surges?
Blue forests ecosystems like mangroves, seagrass, kelp, and salt marshes can help protect coastal communities against storm surge and coastal flooding by absorbing wave energy. This wave tank demonst[...]
Type: External-link
Hvilken nytte har vi av blå skog?
Hvilken nytte har vi av blå skog?
Blå skoger gir viktige økosystemtjenester som fiskebarnehager og beiteområder, kystbeskyttelse mot stormer og erosjon, karbonlagring og mye mer. Se videoen for å lære mer om disse tjenestene so[...]
Type: External-link
Why are Blue Forests Useful?
Why are Blue Forests Useful?
Blue forests provide key ecosystem services like fish nurseries and grazing areas, coastline protection from storms and erosion, carbon storage, and much more. Watch to learn about the many benefits[...]
Type: External-link
A New Generation of Ocean Farmers are Reducing Pollution with Seaweed
A New Generation of Ocean Farmers are Reducing Pollution with Seaweed
Seaweed soaks up carbon and nitrogen, two pollutants lingering in the water. If ocean farmers devoted a little less than 5 percent of U.S. waters to growing seaweed, they could clean up an estimated 1[...]
Type: External-link
Provisioning and Supporting Services of Mangroves
Provisioning and Supporting Services of Mangroves
There are a number of tangible products that can be directly utilised and marketed from mangrove forests. [...]
Type: External-link
Seagrasses, Nature’s Water Filter
Seagrasses, Nature’s Water Filter
In many systems, vegetated estuarine habitats such as salt marshes and seagrass beds act as a natural water filtration system—where sediment and nutrient-rich water flows in and cleaner water flows [...]
Type: External-link
Protecting Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity
Protecting Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity
Ecosystem services are the engine of the environment. They are essential to life. Land, water, air, climate and genetic resources must be used responsibly if they are to also benefit future generation[...]
Type: External-link
What Is Blue Carbon and Why Does It Matter?
What Is Blue Carbon and Why Does It Matter?
Though terrestrial forests typically get most of the attention, they are not the only ecosystems that possess a natural ability to fight climate change. There are three coastal ecosystems that are als[...]
Type: External-link
The Colors of Carbon
The Colors of Carbon
A full spectrum of colour-based descriptions has emerged to describe the properties and distribution of organic carbon: black, brown, red, blue, green and teal. This colour-based terminology contribut[...]
Type: External-link
Hva truer blå skog i Norge?
Hva truer blå skog i Norge?
Blå skoger forsvinner i et alarmerende tempo rundt om i verden, hovedsakelig på grunn av menneskelige påvirkninger og klimaendringer. Se videoen for å lære mer om de underliggende årsakene til [...]
Type: External-link
Hva er blå skog?
Hva er blå skog?
Blå skoger – ålegressenger, mangroveskoger, tareskoger, tang og tidevannseng-og sump – er kyst- og marineøkosystemer som binder karbon og gir en mengde økosystemtjenester. Se videoen for å [...]
Type: External-link
How are Blue Forests Threatened in Norway?
How are Blue Forests Threatened in Norway?
Blue forests around the world are disappearing at an alarming rate mostly due to human impacts and climate change. Watch to learn more about the underlying causes threatening blue forests, and how t[...]
Type: External-link
What are Blue Forests?
What are Blue Forests?
Blue forests – seagrass meadows, mangrove forests, kelp forests, rockweed, and salt marshes – are coastal and marine ecosystems that sequester carbon and provide a multitude of ecosystem services [...]
Type: External-link
The Magic of Seagrass
The Magic of Seagrass
A toolkit to help raise awareness of seagrass — the ocean’s wild savannas. Use the Toolkit to help inspire seagrass protection and restoration [...]
Type: External-link
The Magic of Mangroves
The Magic of Mangroves
A toolkit to help raise awareness of mangroves — the world’s most important trees. Use it to help inspire mangrove protection and restoration. [...]
Type: External-link
What are Mangrove Forests?
What are Mangrove Forests?
Mangroves are shrubs and trees that grow in coastal waters. Mangroves are halophytes, meaning they are salt-tolerant trees that thrive in intertidal conditions. These diverse and productive ecosystems[...]
Type: External-link
5 “Blue Forests” That are Vital to Life on Earth
5 “Blue Forests” That are Vital to Life on Earth
When you think of a forest, chances are you picture trees rising high above you, leaves crunching underfoot. But there are some very different types of forest – in and under the water – th[...]
Type: External-link
Understanding Blue Carbon
Understanding Blue Carbon
Blue carbon refers to carbon dioxide that is absorbed from the atmosphere and stored in the ocean. “Blue” refers to the watery nature of this storage. The vast majority of blue carbon is carbon di[...]
Type: External-link
What is Carbon Sequestration?
What is Carbon Sequestration?
Carbon sequestration – the practice of removing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it – is one of the many approaches being taken to tackle climate change. Find out why this method is being us[...]
Type: External-link
Kelp Deforestation: Threats to our Underwater Forests
Kelp Deforestation: Threats to our Underwater Forests
Kelp forests are some of the most dynamic and ecologically productive marine habitats in the world. A root-like system called a holdfast affixes to the rocky seafloor, supporting a long stipe that ext[...]
Type: External-link
The Biological Productivity of the Ocean
The Biological Productivity of the Ocean
Productivity fuels life in the ocean, drives its chemical cycles, and lowers atmospheric carbon dioxide. Nutrient uptake and export interact with circulation to yield distinct ocean regimes. [...]
Type: External-link
The Blue Carbon Initiative
The Blue Carbon Initiative
Through this resource, readers can learn more about about blue carbon and how it contributes to mitigating climate change. [...]
Type: External-link
Deep Sea Fun
Deep Sea Fun
What types of marine life can be found in the deep sea? This online exercise comes to you from Neal Agarwal. [...]
Type: External-link
The Carbon Cycle – Essential for Life on Earth
The Carbon Cycle – Essential for Life on Earth
Carbon is an essential building block for life. Learning how carbon is converted through slow- and fast-moving cycles helps us understand how this life-sustaining element moves through the environment[...]
Type: External-link
Ocean Carbon Dioxide levels. An invisible time bomb?
Ocean Carbon Dioxide levels. An invisible time bomb?

Ocean Acidification is perhaps the most well publicised consequence of increased levels of carbon dioxide being absorbed by our oceans. But as the oceans also absorb vast quantities of heat from ou[...]

Type: External-link
The Ocean Carbon Cycle
The Ocean Carbon Cycle
Without the contribution of oceans and coastal ecosystems to global biological carbon sequestration, today’s CO2 concentration in the atmosphere would be much larger than it is. But the uptake capac[...]
Type: External-link
The Carbon Cycle
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is the basis of all organic substances, from fossil fuels to human cells. On Earth, carbon is continually on the move – cycling through living things, the land, ocean, atmosphere. What happen[...]
Type: External-link
Chasing a Global Coral Reef Bleaching Event
Chasing a Global Coral Reef Bleaching Event
Coral reefs around the world have experienced the widest-spread, longest and most damaging bleaching event on record. The Ocean Agency, armed with custom-built 360-degree underwater cameras, raced aro[...]
Type: External-link
Our Incredible Ocean
Our Incredible Ocean
A visual toolkit to help raise awareness of the fundamental importance of the ocean to life on Earth, and help inspire ocean protection. This resource corresponds with the seven Ocean Literacy Essenti[...]
Type: External-link
Global Carbon Atlas
Global Carbon Atlas
An online interactive tool to explore and visualize the most up-to-date data on carbon fluxes resulting from human activities and natural processes [...]
Type: External-link
Show your Stripes
Show your Stripes
This resource allows you to see the “stripes” of global warming in the planet or in your country. [...]
Type: External-link
How Much Carbon was in the Atmosphere When you Were Born?
How Much Carbon was in the Atmosphere When you Were Born?
This resource allows you to see how the CO2 concentration has changed in the atmosphere since you were born. [...]
Type: External-link
What is Ocean Acidification?
What is Ocean Acidification?
The term ocean acidification is used to describe the ongoing decrease in ocean pH caused by human CO2 emissions, such as the burning of fossil fuels. It is the little known consequence of living in a [...]
Type: External-link
Why is pH Important?
Why is pH Important?
pH is important for a wide range of industries from aquaculture to wastewater treatments that require an accurate pH reading, especially when it comes down to human safety. [...]
Type: External-link
2020 Was One of Three Warmest Years on Record
2020 Was One of Three Warmest Years on Record
The year 2020 was one of the three warmest on record, and rivalled 2016 for the top spot, according to a consolidation of five leading international datasets by the World Meteorological Organization ([...]
Type: External-link
Marine Life Cycles
Marine Life Cycles
Although at the surface the ocean can appear calm and quiet, in fact there is an enormous amount of life activity taking place, particularly at certain times of the year. [...]
Type: External-link
How Does CO2 Affect pH In Water?
How Does CO2 Affect pH In Water?
The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in a solution is one of the many factors that determines the pH of water. When CO2 levels increase in water, the pH level drops, which makes the water become more ac[...]
Type: External-link
What are El Niño and La Niña?
What are El Niño and La Niña?
El Niño and La Niña are climate patterns in the Pacific Ocean that can affect weather worldwide and can also have global impacts on weather, wildfires, ecosystems, and economies. [...]
Type: External-link
Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals
Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals
The goal of SDG 14 – Life Below Water is to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources. The UN has defined 10 Targets and 10 Indicators for SDG 14. Targets specify the go[...]
Type: External-link
The Coastal Ecosystem Mapping and Media Viability Project
The Coastal Ecosystem Mapping and Media Viability Project
The Coastal Ecosystem Mapping and Media Utility project applied advanced and pioneering unmanned aerial vehicle technology with companion software and mobile app to explore the viability of an innovat[...]
Type: External-link